Variations in Psychological Attributes - Class 12 Psychology - Chapter 1 - Notes, NCERT Solutions & Extra Questions
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Extra Questions - Variations in Psychological Attributes | NCERT | Psychology | Class 12
What is the type of the underlined clause? That you are a talented student, I already know.
A Adverb Clause
B Adjective Clause
C Noun Clause
D Conditional Clause
The correct answer is C - Noun Clause.
The clause "That you are a talented student" acts as a noun in this sentence, representing the subject of what is known. Noun clauses can function as subjects, objects, or complements within a sentence, similar to how individual nouns function.
Directions: Study the following information carefully to answer the question given below. (i) There is a group of seven persons: A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. (ii) There are four males, three females, two married couples, and three unmarried persons in the group. (iii) The seven persons are seated in a row on the bench. (iv) By professions, they are an engineer, a teacher, a doctor, a psychologist, a businessman, an architect, and a student. (v) B is not married, and another person, the psychologist, is the most intelligent. (vi) The engineer is married to the teacher, who is the least intelligent of the group. (vii) D is an architect. He is sitting in the leftmost corner. (viii) The student is sitting in the rightmost corner. (ix) The doctor is married to C. C is the second most intelligent of the group followed by her husband. (x) The least intelligent of the group is sitting on the immediate right of D, followed by the most intelligent. (xi) There are as many more intelligent persons than the engineer as there are less intelligent. (xii) Followed by D, there are three females sitting in succession. (xiii) The psychologist is a female. (xiv) The student is more intelligent than the architect, who is more intelligent than only one person, F. (xv) Neither A nor G is a female.
Who is sitting on the immediate right of D?
A. F
B. E
C. C
D. A
E. None of these
The correct answer is A. F.
F is seated immediately to the right of D.
If Aju scored 70 and 85 out of 100 in two consecutive tests, what is the percentage increase in marks scored by him?
A) $10%$
B) $15%$
C) $20%$
D) $25%$
The correct answer is Option B: $15%$.
Firstly, calculate the percentage of marks Aju scored in each test:
First test:$$ \frac{70}{100} \times 100% = 70% $$
Second test:$$ \frac{85}{100} \times 100% = 85% $$
To find the percentage increase in his scores, subtract the percentage in the first test from the percentage in the second test: $$ 85% - 70% = 15% $$
Thus, the percentage increase in marks scored by Aju is $15%$.
In the entrance examination of IIMs, there were 200 questions, each of which carries the same marks. A correct answer gets 2 marks and there is 100% negative marking. A total of 70 candidates took the exam, and it was later found that the average marks obtained by these 70 candidates was 240. The candidates were not required to attempt all the questions. None of the candidates got more incorrect answers than correct answers.
When the scores of the top four students are deleted, the average score of the remaining 66 students falls by 6 marks. Assume that it is possible for two or more students to have the same net score. What is the minimum score possible for the fourth ranking student if no student got a net score of more than 352?
A. 280
B. 300
C. 308
D. 320
The key idea here is to calculate the total sum of scores for the 70 candidates and then find the impact on the average by excluding the scores of the top four students.
Calculate the total sum of scores for all candidates:
Each candidate had a potential score ranging between $0$ and $352$. With 70 candidates having an average of $240$ marks, the total score can be calculated as: $$ \text{Total sum of scores} = 70 \times 240 = 16800 $$
Examine the effect of top four students:
With the removal of the top four students, the remaining 66 students have an average that is $6$ marks less, making their average $234$. Thus, the total of their scores is: $$ \text{Total score of 66 students} = 66 \times 234 = 15444 $$
Derive the sum of scores of the top four students:
We know from above that: $$ \text{Sum of scores of top four students} = 16800 - 15444 = 1356 $$
Apply the maximum score constraint to find the minimum score for the 4th student:
The maximum score possible for any student is $352$. Assuming that the top three students scored this maximum, their combined score is: $$ \text{Maximum possible score for top three} = 3 \times 352 = 1056 $$ Therefore, the minimum score for the 4th student, given that the total for the top four is $1356$, must be: $$ \text{Minimum score for the 4th student} = 1356 - 1056 = 300 $$
Conclusion: The minimum possible score for the fourth-ranking student, given the constraints of the problem, is 300 marks, which corresponds to option B.
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How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence?
Psychologists characterize and define intelligence as the global capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use available resources effectively when faced with challenges. Intelligence involves various aspects such as the ability to adapt to the environment, solve problems, and engage in abstract thinking. Noted psychologists like Wechsler have described intelligence as an aggregate capacity of an individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment. Furthermore, theories like Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences argue that intelligence is not a single entity but comprises various distinct types that are interdependent, emphasizing that individuals may excel in different types of intelligences independently of each other.
To what extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)? Discuss.
Intelligence is the result of a complex interplay between hereditary factors (nature) and environmental conditions (nurture). This interaction affects how intellectual abilities develop and manifest in an individual.
Heredity (Nature)
- Evidence from studies on twins and adopted children indicates a strong genetic component to intelligence. For example, the intelligence scores of identical twins raised together have a correlation close to 0.90, suggesting a high genetic influence.
- Studies also show that even when identical twins are reared apart, their intelligence scores exhibit considerable similarity (correlation of around 0.72).
Environment (Nurture)
- Environmental influences become more apparent as children grow. For instance, children from disadvantaged homes who are adopted into families with higher socioeconomic status often show significant increases in their intelligence scores.
- Aspects such as rich nutrition, stimulating educational environments, emotional support, and quality schooling are crucial environmental factors that can enhance intelligence levels.
Conclusion
There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is carved by both genetic dispositions and environmental experiences. The range of potential intelligence is set by genetics, while the actual developmental level attained is heavily influenced by environmental conditions.
Thus, while nature sets the potential, nurture significantly shapes the realization of this potential in various forms and to different extents across individuals' lifetimes.
Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner.
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences, suggesting that intelligence is not a single entity but consists of distinct types of intelligences that are independent of each other. Here are the eight types of intelligence identified by Gardner:
Linguistic Intelligence: Ability to use language effectively both verbally and written; displayed by poets, writers, and speakers.
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: Capacity for inductive and deductive reasoning, recognizing abstract patterns, and handling logical reasoning; often found in mathematicians, scientists, and detectives.
Spatial Intelligence: Ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems; relevant for architects, artists, and engineers.
Musical Intelligence: Skill in performing, composing, and appreciating musical patterns; musicians typically possess a high degree of this intelligence.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Using the body effectively to solve problems or create products; dancers, surgeons, and athletes often excel in this intelligence.
Interpersonal Intelligence: The ability to understand and interact effectively with others; teachers, social workers, and actors are generally strong in this area.
Intrapersonal Intelligence: Understanding one’s own emotions, motivations, and inner states; philosophers and spiritual leaders typically excel here.
Naturalistic Intelligence: Ability to identify and distinguish among different types of flora, fauna, and weather formations; often found in farmers, botanists, and chefs.
Gardner argues that these intelligences can work together to produce a well-rounded and effective approach to interacting with the world. Each type of intelligence provides a unique way of interacting with the environment and solving problems, suggesting that every individual possesses a unique blend of all these intelligences.
How does the triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence?
The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, proposed by Robert Sternberg, helps us understand intelligence by suggesting that it is comprised of three distinct but interrelated components:
Componential Intelligence (Analytical): This aspect involves the analysis of information to solve problems, primarily highlighted by academic problem-solving and computation. Individuals high in this intelligence are typically adept at performing tasks that require planning, decision-making, and other forms of analytical thinking.
Experiential Intelligence (Creative): This type refers to the ability to use experiences in novel ways. It's about being able to adapt to new situations, integrate experiences into existing knowledge, and engage in creative problem-solving. It emphasizes innovation and the ability to manipulate ideas to create unique solutions to problems.
Contextual Intelligence (Practical): Often referred to as "street smarts," this dimension of intelligence is about applying what one knows to everyday real-world situations. This includes the ability to read and shape environments, adapting or changing them as needed to achieve personal and/or collective goals.
Overall, Sternberg's theory provides a broad, dynamic view of intelligence that goes beyond traditional concepts which typically focus only on cognitive, often academic-only, aspects. It acknowledges that intelligent behavior involves more than just book smarts—it also encompasses creative adaptation to, and manipulation of, real-world environments and experiences. This makes the model especially useful in understanding that intelligence is multifaceted and context-dependent, changing based on the situation and demands.
“Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three neurological systems”. Explain with reference to PASS model.
In the PASS (Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous-successive) Model of Intelligence, intellectual activity is explained through the independent functioning of three neurological systems which interact to perform cognitive tasks. Here's how each system contributes:
Arousal/Attention: This system is foundational for all cognitive activity as it regulates the state of alertness and the ability to focus on specific stimuli or tasks. An optimal level of arousal is crucial to effectively attend to tasks. For example, arousal prepares you to focus on studying for an upcoming test, ensuring that your attention is directed towards the relevant study material.
Simultaneous and Successive Processing:
Simultaneous Processing: This involves integrating separate elements into a coherent whole. It allows an individual to perceive relationships among concepts or visual patterns, aiding in understanding complex systems or solving puzzles where multiple elements need to be organized together.
Successive Processing: This system is activated when tasks require items to be arranged or recalled in specific orders, such as remembering a string of numbers, following multi-step instructions, or learning languages.
Planning: This is the executive function where strategies are formulated, monitored, and revised based on their effectiveness. Planning organizes the other cognitive processes and is necessary for goal-directed behavior, problem solving, and decision making. It allows individuals to plan how to study for a test, decide on priorities, assess time requirements, and adjust approaches as needed.
Each of these systems independently and collectively contribute to the cognitive functioning necessary for a wide range of intellectual activities, demonstrating their interdependent roles in the processing and utilization of information.
Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?
Yes, there are cultural differences in the conceptualization of intelligence. According to the provided chapter:
In technologically advanced societies, intelligence is often conceptualized around technical skills and cognitive abilities such as reasoning, analysis, and abstraction. These societies value speed, minimal moves, and mental manipulation, which nurtures a form of intelligence often termed as "technological intelligence."
In contrast, non-western cultures, particularly in many Asian and African societies, broader competencies are valued which include social, emotional, and interpersonal skills. These cultures often appreciate intelligence that involves self-reflection, collectivism, and the ability to adapt socially, which might not be captured entirely by traditional measures of cognitive intelligence.
Indian culture promotes an idea of integral intelligence, which emphasizes connectivity with the social and world environment, blending cognitive, emotional, and motivational components. The Sanskrit word 'buddhi' represents a holistic view of intelligence more inclusive than the typically narrower Western concept, integrating mental effort, action, feelings, and desires.
These variations emphasize that while Western contexts may focus on individual achievement and cognitive skills, other cultures might prioritize a harmonious balance between personal and collective well-being, highlighting the influence of cultural factors in shaping the conception of intelligence.
What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores?
IQ, or Intelligence Quotient, is a measure of a person's intellectual development relative to people of their age group. It is calculated based on the formula:
[ \mathrm{IQ}=\frac{\mathrm{MA}}{\mathrm{CA}} \times 100 ]
where MA is the Mental Age, indicating the intellectual level a person is operating at compared to age norms, and CA is the Chronological Age. An IQ of 100 is considered average.
Psychologists classify people based on their IQ scores using specific ranges. Here's the classification:
Above 130: Very Superior
120-129: Superior
110-119: High Average
90-109: Average
80-89: Low Average
70-79: Borderline
Below 70: Intellectually Disabled
These ranges help in identifying various intellectual capabilities in individuals, from intellectually disabled to average intelligence and up to exceptionally gifted or very superior intelligence.
How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
Verbal and performance tests of intelligence are differentiated based on the nature of the items used for the assessment and the mode of response required from the test-takers:
Verbal Tests
Nature of Items: These tests consist of items that require verbal responses and typically involve questions that require spoken or written answers.
Mode of Response: Test-takers respond orally or in a written form. These tests assess abilities like vocabulary, comprehension, knowledge of concepts, and verbal reasoning.
Example: Verbal questions might ask for explanations of how two concepts are related or require reading comprehension.
Performance Tests
Nature of Items: These tests use non-verbal content such as pictures or objects that test-takers must manipulate or organize to solve problems or complete tasks.
Mode of Response: Test-takers usually perform practical tasks, manipulate objects, or solve puzzles. Written language is not necessary to complete these tests.
Example: Tasks might include arranging blocks to match a pattern, or solving visual puzzles like those found in Raven’s Progressive Matrices.
Verbal tests require a good command of language and are usually taken by those who are literate. Performance tests, on the other hand, do not require linguistic skills, making them suitable for assessing intelligence across different cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their intellectual ability? Explain.
Individuals vary in their intellectual abilities along a spectrum that can be measured in terms of intelligence, which is often represented quantitatively using the Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
Range of Intellectual Competencies: People differ in their ability to understand complex ideas, adapt to the environment, learn from experience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and overcome obstacles.
IQ Spectrum: Intelligence is typically measured using IQ scores. These scores establish a range of intellectual capabilities where:
An IQ of 100 is average.
Scores below 70 are often classified as indicating intellectual disabilities.
Scores above 130 indicate exceptional intellectual abilities or giftedness.
Normal Distribution: IQ scores generally follow a normal distribution (bell curve) in the population, where most people score near the average and fewer score very high or very low.
Categories of Intellectual Ability: Based on IQ, individuals are classified into categories such as superior, average, and below average. This classification aids in understanding the diverse capabilities in learning and comprehension among different individuals.
Intellectual Disability vs. Giftedness: At the extremes of the IQ spectrum, some individuals face significant learning and adaptive challenges (intellectual disability), while others may demonstrate extraordinary capabilities in academic and creative domains (giftedness).
These variations are influenced by both genetics (heredity) and environment (nurture), showing that intellectual development is a result of complex interplay between an individual's genetic makeup and their environmental experiences. This spectrum of intellectual abilities among individuals emphasizes the unique cognitive landscape of each person, contributing to diverse talents and capacities within the population.
Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and why?
The relationship between IQ (Intelligence Quotient) and EQ (Emotional Quotient), and their effects on life success, are complex. Both play important roles in different areas of life. Here's how they contribute to success:
IQ is crucial for tasks that require problem-solving, analytical thinking, and understanding complex ideas. It is directly related to academic and cognitive performance, which can lead to success in professions that require high intellectual capability.
EQ, on the other hand, involves the ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions. It plays a critical role in interpersonal relationships, self-awareness, and self-regulation. High EQ helps individuals navigate social environments, enhance leadership skills, and manage personal and professional relationships effectively, which are crucial for success in a broad range of careers and life situations.
Research and psychological perspectives suggest that while IQ can determine how well individuals can perform tasks that require cognitive thinking, EQ contributes significantly to a person's ability to work well with others, manage stress, and lead a balanced life. In today's interconnected and highly social world, EQ might be more related to broader life success than IQ. EQ allows individuals to foster better relationships, create supportive networks, and maintain psychological health, all of which are vital for long-term personal and professional success.
Thus, while both IQ and EQ contribute to success, EQ might have a broader impact on overall life satisfaction and success, especially in managing personal relationships and adapting to life's various challenges.
How is ‘aptitude’ different from ‘interest’ and ‘intelligence’? How is aptitude measured?
Aptitude vs. Interest vs. Intelligence
Aptitude refers to an individual's underlying potential for acquiring skills and abilities. It indicates a person's capacity to develop skills in a specific area with appropriate training. For instance, someone with a high mechanical aptitude can excel as an engineer with the right training.
Interest is about an individual's preference for engaging in one or more activities rather than others. It's about what a person enjoys doing, which might not necessarily align with their aptitudes or inherent abilities.
Intelligence, on the other hand, is a broader concept that involves the ability to understand complex ideas, learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.
How is Aptitude Measured?
Aptitude is assessed through aptitude tests, which are specifically designed to predict an individual's future performance in a particular skill area when provided with the proper environment and training. These tests can be either independent, focusing on a specific aptitude (like mechanical, clerical, or musical aptitude), or multiple aptitude tests (like the Differential Aptitude Tests or General Aptitude Tests Battery), which assess several aptitudes simultaneously. These tests measure a person's potential in areas that are crucial for success in different fields and can greatly aid in career planning and development.
How is creativity related to intelligence?
Creativity and intelligence are related but distinct psychological constructs:
Creativity involves the ability to produce novel and useful ideas or solutions to problems. It is often characterized by the ability to think differently, divergently, or explore many potential solutions.
Intelligence, particularly as measured by traditional IQ tests, typically concerns the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience.
Research highlights:
A certain level of intelligence is necessary for creativity, but beyond a moderate level of intelligence, there is no strong correlation between higher intelligence and increased creativity.
Creativity involves divergent thinking (thinking that explores multiple possible solutions) whereas traditional measures of intelligence often involve convergent thinking (narrowing down multiple possibilities to find a single, correct answer).
Some assessments, like Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, explicitly try to measure creative potential, separate from intelligence test scores.
In summary, while both intelligence and creativity involve cognitive processing, they emphasize different types of thinking and problem-solving abilities. High intelligence does not ensure high creativity, and vice versa.
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Comprehensive Class 12 Notes on Variations in Psychological Attributes
Understanding Variations in Psychological Attributes
Psychological attributes encompass various aspects of human cognition, emotion, and social interaction. These attributes differ significantly among individuals, influencing how we perceive, learn, think, and perform in different tasks. Recognising these differences is crucial for understanding human behaviour and fostering personal development.
Domains of Psychological Attributes
Cognitive Attributes
Intelligence is one of the most studied psychological attributes. It refers to the global capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use available resources effectively when faced with challenges.
Theories of Intelligence:
- Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: Suggests that intelligence is not a single entity, but a combination of various distinct types, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial intelligence.
- Sternberg's Triarchic Theory: Proposes three types of intelligence: analytical (componential), creative (experiential), and practical (contextual).
Emotional Attributes
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is the ability to perceive, assess, and manage one's own emotions as well as the emotions of others. Features of emotionally intelligent individuals include self-awareness, empathy, and social skills.
Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons:
- Perceive and manage emotions effectively.
- Relate emotions to thoughts and decisions.
- Maintain harmony in interpersonal relationships.
Social Attributes
Social Competence involves understanding and managing social interactions effectively. It includes empathy, effective communication, and the ability to establish meaningful relationships.
Assessment of Psychological Attributes
Methods for Assessing Psychological Attributes
Psychologists use various methods to assess psychological attributes:
- Psychological Tests: Objective and standardised measures of mental and behavioural characteristics.
- Interviews: One-on-one interactions to gather in-depth information.
- Observations: Recording behaviours in natural settings.
- Self-Reports: Individuals provide information about themselves through questionnaires or diaries.
Flowchart: Psychological Assessment Methods Using Mermaid.js
graph TD;
A[Psychological Assessment Methods]
A --> B[Psychological Tests]
A --> C[Interviews]
A --> D[Observations]
A --> E[Self-Reports]
Specific Assessment Tools
Assessment tools can be classified as:
- Verbal Tests: Require verbal responses.
- Non-verbal Tests: Use pictures or patterns.
- Performance Tests: Involve manipulation of objects.
Individual Differences in Intelligence
Factors Influencing Intelligence
Intelligence results from a complex interplay between hereditary (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors. Research, especially twin studies, highlights the significant role both play.
Intellectual Giftedness and Disability
Giftedness refers to exceptional aptitude or competence in one or more areas. Gifted individuals typically show high logical thinking, creativity, and motivation.
Intellectual Disability involves significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour, typically noted before the age of 18.
Intelligence in Cultural Context
Cultural Variations in Understanding Intelligence
Intelligence is perceived differently across cultures:
- Western Perspectives: Focus on analytical skills, speed, and individual achievement.
- Non-Western Perspectives: Emphasise social harmony, self-reflection, and collective well-being.
Indian Perspective on Intelligence
In Indian tradition, integral intelligence emphasises a holistic approach, integrating cognitive, emotional, and social aspects. The concept of 'buddhi' includes mental effort, determined action, and self-understanding.
Emotional and Special Abilities
Emotional Intelligence
EI is essential for personal and professional success. It enables individuals to cope with stress, manage relationships, and navigate social complexities.
Measuring Aptitude
Aptitude refers to an individual's capacity to acquire skills or knowledge after training. It can be measured through independent or multiple aptitude tests like the Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT) and the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB).
Creativity and Its Assessment
Creativity vs. Intelligence
While intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge, creativity involves generating novel and useful ideas. Both are essential but distinct attributes.
Factors Influencing Creativity
Creativity is shaped by an interaction of genetic predispositions and environmental influences. Supportive environments, motivation, and opportunities can enhance creative potential.
Ethical Considerations in Psychological Testing
When conducting psychological tests, it is imperative to ensure fairness, objectivity, and ethical use. Misuse of tests can lead to stigmatization and discrimination.
Conclusion
Understanding variations in psychological attributes is vital for appreciating human diversity. By assessing and nurturing these attributes, we can foster individual growth and improve societal well-being.
This comprehensive guide provides an in-depth look into the different psychological attributes, their assessment methods, and the importance of considering cultural and situational factors in understanding human behaviour.
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