Attitude and Social Cognition - Class 12 Psychology - Chapter 6 - Notes, NCERT Solutions & Extra Questions
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Define attitude. Discuss the components of an attitude.
Definition of Attitude
An attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views or thoughts regarding some topic, which possesses an evaluative feature (could be positive, negative, or neutral). It involves emotions and behaviors towards an "attitude object," encompassing beliefs and evaluative feelings that predispose a person to act in certain ways.
Components of an Attitude
Attitudes comprise three primary components, often referred to as the A-B-C components:
Affective Component: This represents the emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an attitude object. It reflects how much someone likes or dislikes an object, which significantly influences how they behave toward it.
Behavioral Component: Also known as the conative aspect, it involves the way the attitude influences how we act or behave towards the object. This component is about the person’s intention to behave in a particular way towards the attitude object.
Cognitive Component: This component consists of the beliefs, thoughts, attributes, and properties of the attitude object; essentially the beliefs a person holds about the object. This component involves a logical evaluation of the attributes of the attitude object and serves as the basis for the affective and behavioral components.
These components underscore that attitudes are complex structures formed by interrelated beliefs, feelings, and intentions toward specific objects or persons.
Are attitudes learnt? Explain how?
Yes, attitudes are learned. They are formed as individuals interact with their social environment. Attitude formation occurs through different mechanisms:
Learning by Association: This can occur when positive or negative qualities are associated with specific objects, people, or situations. For example, students may develop a liking for a subject because of their positive experiences with a teacher associated with that subject.
Learning by Rewards and Punishments: Attitudes can be strengthened when behaviors related to them are rewarded, or weakened when they are punished. For instance, praising a child for eating healthy can foster a positive attitude toward healthy eating.
Learning through Modeling: Observing others and mimicking their attitudes toward certain objects or groups is another way attitudes are learned. For instance, children can develop attitudes by imitating the behaviors and attitudes of their parents or peers.
Learning through Group or Cultural Norms: Attitudes are also influenced by the norms of the society or culture one belongs baszed on what behaviors or viewpoints are seen as acceptable or valued by the group.
Learning through Exposure to Information: Media, books, and other sources of information can also shape attitudes by providing repeated messages that can either reinforce existing attitudes or create new ones.
These processes highlight that people do not innately possess attitudes but develop them through various forms of social learning and interaction within their environments.
What are the factors that influence the formation of an attitude?
The factors that influence the formation of an attitude can be categorized under several key areas:
Family and School Environment: During the early years, parents and other family members are influential in shaping attitudes. As one grows, the school environment becomes pivotal in this process, where attitudes are usually formed through association, rewards and punishments, and modeling.
2.Afterward, the Reference Groups provide norms regarding acceptable behavior and thinking, reflecting the attitudes through social norms. These groups are particularly influential around adolescence, when belonging to a group becomes significant.
Personal Experiences: Direct personal experiences that can be transformative also contribute to attitude formation, helping one to form new perspectives or reinforce existing ones based on those experiences.
Media-related Influences: With the rise in digital media, attitudes can be formed and changed through the information presented in the media. This includes how media can shape opinions both positively and negatively based on the content consumed.
Each of these factors provides a context for the learning and development of attitudes through various interactions with the environment and the information received from it.
Is behaviour always a reflection of one's attitude? Explain with a relevant example.
No, behaviour is not always a reflection of one's attitude. This inconsistency between attitudes and behaviour can be due to various reasons such as external social pressures, context of the situation, perceived consequences of the behaviour, and more.
For example, the study conducted by social psychologist Richard LaPiere is a classic example of how attitudes and behaviors might not always align. During his research, LaPiere traveled across the United States with a Chinese couple and found that, despite the widespread prejudice against the Chinese at the time, they were refused service only once in numerous hotels and restaurants they visited. Later, when LaPiere sent questionnaires to the same establishments, asking if they would serve Chinese guests, a large majority responded negatively. This shows a disconnect between actual behaviour (service was provided) and the expressed attitude (respondents said they would refuse service), demonstrating that attitudes may not always accurately predict behaviour.
Differentiate between prejudice and stereotype.
Prejudice and stereotype are related concepts within social psychology but serve different cognitive and social functions:
Stereotypes are generalized and widely held beliefs about a particular category of people. They simplify information processing by enabling us to assume that all members of a group share the same characteristics. Despite being oversimplifications, stereotypes can be positive, negative, or neutral but often lead to inaccurate judgments about individuals.
Prejudice, on the other hand, is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual's membership of a social group. Prejudice is essentially an attitude that includes emotions and value judgments, which is not necessarily based on fact.
Thus, while a stereotype is the cognitive component that involves beliefs or attributions made about a group, prejudice encompasses a negative emotional response or attitude towards it. Prejudice may also lead to discrimination, which is the behavioral manifestation of prejudicial attitudes.
Prejudice can exist without discrimination and vice versa. Comment.
Prejudice can indeed exist without leading to discrimination, and likewise, discrimination can occur without prejudice. This distinction emphasizes that while the two concepts are often linked, they can manifest independently:
Prejudice refers to negative attitudes or feelings towards a person based solely on their membership in a specific group. This is the affective component of how people evaluate others based on preconceived notions, often without direct interaction or actual evidence.
Discrimination, on the other hand, involves actual behavior or actions against a group. It is the behavioural outcome that might stem from prejudiced feelings or can be enacted as a result of institutional or societal structures independently of personal prejudice.
Situations Illustrating the Independent Existence:
Prejudice without Discrimination:
An individual might hold prejudiced beliefs about a group but never engage in discriminatory behavior due to social norms, legal constraints, or personal principles that prevent such actions.
Discrimination without Prejudice:
In certain situations, individuals or institutions might engage in practices that are discriminatory due to societal, legal, or economic structures, even though they do not hold personal prejudices. For example, a business might follow legacy hiring practices that inadvertently favor one group over another without any intentional prejudice from the decision makers.
Dynamics Involved:
The presence of institutional policies or societal norms can facilitate discriminatory practices irrespective of individual prejudices. Additionally, personal biases or stereotypes can exist in the mind without manifesting in overt discrimination due to various restraining factors. Thus, examining both prejudice and discrimination requires understanding both the internal attitudes and the external behaviors, which can sometimes be unaligned.
Your friend eats too much junk food, how would you be able to bring about a change in her/his attitude towards food?
To effectively change your friend’s attitude towards junk food, consider the following strategies outlined in the psychology of attitude change:
Learning through Exposure to Information: Share credible and scientific information about the health risks and negative consequences of consuming junk food, and the benefits of healthier dietary choices.
Learning through Modelling (Observing Others): Demonstrate healthy eating yourself; be an example of a balanced diet and its positive effects on health.
Source Characteristics: Ensure the information comes from an authoritative and credible source. For example, a nutritionist or doctor’s advice might be more persuasive.
Message Characteristics: Use rational appeals (e.g., cost-effectiveness and health benefits of cooking at home) and emotional appeals (e.g., longevity and enhanced wellbeing) to make the message impactful. Also, address the motives activated by the message – for example, better personal appearance, increased energy levels, and improved mood might resonate with your friend.
Two-Step Concept: Support your friend in identifying healthier dietary habits and showcasing new behaviors yourself to encourage imitation. For example, introducing enjoyable and nutritious alternatives to junk food and sharing these new experiences with your friend can encourage them to follow suit.
Gradual Implementation and Reinforcement: Gradual adjustment to less junk food and more nutritious options can be encouraged through positive reinforcement, such as complimenting the effort, discussing positive changes in health or energy levels, and frequent engagement in healthy eating activities together.
By combining the strategies of providing information, serving as a positive model, using a credible source, crafting a persuasive and multifaceted message, and ensuring a supportive environment for change, these techniques aim to reshape your friend’s attitudes towards food based on theories and concepts from social psychology like those of cognitive dissonance and modelling discussed in the chapter.
Attitudes Towards and Awareness of Waste Management : A Survey The problem of household garbage (domestic waste) is common in most Indian cities. The concern for a clean environment is increasing, but we do not know to what extent citizens know how to dispose of the garbage that collects in their household. Along with some of your classmates, conduct a survey in your own colony to find out what people do about household garbage. Each student may visit two houses in their colony, and ask the heads of the household the following questions. Their answers must be written down.
Attitudes Towards and Awareness of Waste Management: A Survey
Introduction:
The issue of household garbage (domestic waste) is prevalent in many Indian cities. With the growing concern for a clean environment, it's essential to assess the extent of awareness and practices regarding garbage disposal among citizens. This survey aims to explore these aspects by collecting data directly from households within a given community.
Survey Plan:
Participants: Each student involved in the survey will visit two houses in their own colony.
Respondents: Heads of the household will be approached to participate in the survey.
Questions to Be Asked:
How do you currently manage the garbage generated in your household?
Options:
Segregation into biodegradable and non-biodegradable
Use of garbage disposal units
Direct disposal without segregation
Others (Please specify)
Are you aware of the local municipal rules concerning waste disposal?
Options:
Yes
No
Not sure
Do you use community bins provided by the local municipality?
Options:
Always
Sometimes
Never
Not available
Do you participate in any community drives or programs aimed at promoting better waste management?
Options:
Yes
No
Interested but haven't yet participated
What challenges do you face in managing household waste effectively?
Open-ended response
What improvements would you like to see in the local waste management system?
Open-ended response
Data Collection Method:
Tools: Survey forms will be used for collecting answers.
Procedure: Each student will explain the purpose of the survey to the respondents before asking questions. Responses will be written down verbatim.
Expected Outcomes:
To understand the current practices and challenges faced by households in waste management.
To assess the level of awareness about the local regulations on waste disposal.
To gather suggestions from the community on improving waste management services.
Project Presentation:
Analysis: The data collected will be compiled, and key trends or patterns will be identified.
Report: A detailed report including graphical representations (if applicable) will be prepared to demonstrate the findings.
Presentation: The final report will be presented to the class and possibly shared with the local community leaders or municipality for further action.
Ethics and Privacy:
Consent: Verbal consent will be obtained from all participants before conducting the survey.
Privacy: Personal information about the respondents (such as names or specific addresses) will not be collected to maintain confidentiality.
This structured approach will help in collecting meaningful data that can contribute towards better waste management practices in the community.
What do you do with old newspapers, magazines, tins, and bottles ?
Old Newspapers and Magazines: These can be recycled. They can be collected and dropped off at a local recycling facility. Alternatively, newspapers and magazines can be reused creatively in DIY projects like papier-mâché, wrapping gifts, or as drop cloths for painting.
Tins (Metal Cans): These should be cleaned and can be recycled at a local metal recycling center. Like paper, metal can be efficiently processed and repurposed into new metal goods.
Glass and Plastic Bottles: These should be rinsed and can be recycled. Many areas offer curbside recycling services where you can place glass and plastic bottles in designated bins. They can also be taken to a recycling facility.
What do you do with plastic packets, and other plastic objects (for example, toys, containers etc.)?
When dealing with plastic packets and other plastic objects like toys and containers, it's crucial to minimize waste and promote recycling. Here's what you can do:
1. Reduce Usage: Opt for alternatives to plastic where possible. Using reusable bags, containers, and toys made from sustainable materials helps reduce plastic waste.
2. Reuse: Before discarding, think if the plastic item can be repurposed. For example, clean and use old plastic containers for storage or starting seeds for a garden. Toys can be donated or sold to extend their lifecycle.
3. Recycle Properly: Check your local recycling guidelines, as not all plastics are recyclable in curbside programs. Sorting plastic waste according to the local recycling rules is crucial to ensure it is processed correctly.
4. Support Eco-Friendly Products: Purchase products made from recycled plastics and companies committed to sustainable practices. This supports a market for recycled materials and encourages less reliance on new plastics.
By focusing on these practices, you can help reduce the environmental impact of plastic waste.
How do you dispose of kitchen waste (e.g., vegetable and fruit peels, used tea leaves or tea-bags, left-over food that cannot be eaten etc.)?
The chapter does not provide specific instructions or methods for disposing of kitchen waste such as vegetable and fruit peels, used tea leaves, tea bags, or leftover food. It primarily focuses on social psychology, attitudes, and behavior. If you need general advice on disposing of kitchen waste, I can provide that:
Composting: This is an eco-friendly way to dispose of kitchen waste. Vegetable peels, fruit scraps, tea leaves and similar organic matter can be composted to create nutrient-rich soil.
Recycling: Some kitchen waste like certain types of packaging can be recycled. Ensure to check local guidelines for recycling.
Biodigesters and enzyme bins: These systems can convert organic waste into a liquid that can safely be drained or used as liquid fertilizer.
Feed Animals: If appropriate and safe, some organic waste can be used to feed animals or incorporated into pet food.
Municipal Waste Services: For kitchen waste that cannot be repurposed or composted, use your municipality's organic waste collection services if available.
For implementing these processes effectively, you might want to check specific local guidelines and more detailed resources on managing kitchen waste sustainably.
How do you dispose of other used objects that contain chemical substances (e.g. torch cells, used or damaged CDs, cassettes, insecticide and pesticide containers etc.)?
Disposing of objects that contain chemical substances requires careful handling to avoid environmental harm and health risks.
Torch cells (batteries): Do not dispose of in regular trash as they contain metals and chemicals that can contaminate soil and water. Instead, use designated recycling facilities or local hazardous waste collection programs.
Used or damaged CDs and cassettes: These items can be recycled at special e-waste recycling centers as they are made of polycarbonate and other materials that require proper processing.
Insecticide and pesticide containers: Must be handled with extra care due to their toxic residues. Triple rinse the containers to remove residual chemicals, and take them to a hazardous waste disposal facility. Never repurpose these containers for any other use.
Always check with local waste management authorities for specific disposal guidelines in your area, as regulations vary widely depending on location. Proper disposal helps prevent pollution and promotes recycling and recovery of valuable materials.
Do you put all the garbage collected in your house everyday in the same place, or do you put different kinds of garbage in separate dustbins/waste-baskets?
It is recommended to segregate different kinds of garbage into separate dustbins or waste-baskets. This practice is known as waste segregation, which helps in the efficient recycling and disposal of waste. Typically, households separate organic waste (like food scraps) from recyclable materials (such as paper, plastic, and metal) and hazardous waste (including batteries or chemical containers). Proper segregation contributes positively to environmental conservation efforts and maximizes the effectiveness of recycling programs.
What happens to the garbage that is collected from your house and neighbourhood and where is it taken?
Once the garbage is collected from homes and neighbourhoods, it is transported to city's municipal waste management system for further processing. The waste is usually divided into categories: biodegradable and non-biodegradable.
Biodegradable waste, which includes organic material like food waste, plant-based materials, etc., is composted in a landfill site. This waste breaks down over time and transforms into compost that can be used to enrich soil.
For non-biodegradable waste, such as plastics, metals, glass, etc., it is generally dumped into a designated landfill site too, but some of this waste undergoes recycling, depending on the quality and type of material. Waste like electronic and medical waste is handled separately, with specific disposal processes.
Additionally, to manage the large volumes of waste, cities are looking for alternatives, such as waste-to-energy plants which help to convert non-biodegradable waste into forms of energy like methane, ethanol or synthetic fuels.
What is the meaning of 'recycling'?
The term 'recycling' does not appear within the provided text from the psychology chapter. It generally refers to the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. This concept is not discussed in the chapter details provided, which focus on attitudes, social behavior, and related psychological concepts. If you have specific questions related to psychology or another context for recycling, please let me know!
What can you do (personally) to make your colony/neighbourhood more clean?
To make your colony or neighborhood cleaner, you can take several personal steps that involve community engagement, education, and direct action. Here are some suggestions based on commonly recommended practices:
Organize Clean-Up Drives: Regularly organize or participate in clean-up drives. Engaging your neighbors in these activities can help keep public spaces clean and raise awareness about the importance of cleanliness.
Educate and Encourage Recycling: Educate your neighbors about the benefits of recycling and how to recycle various materials. You can organize workshops or distribute informational pamphlets. Setting up proper recycling bins in accessible areas can also encourage more participation.
Promote the Use of Public Dustbins: Encourage the use of public dustbins and request additional bins from local authorities if necessary. Regularly ensure that these bins are not overflowing and are cleaned out by the responsible services.
Green Initiatives: Participate in or start green initiatives like tree planting or maintaining community gardens. This not only beautifies the area but also contributes to a healthier environment.
Report Problems: Actively report issues like illegal dumping or broken public facilities to the local authorities. Engaging with local governance can help solve larger systemic issues more efficiently.
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Comprehensive Class 12 Notes on Attitude and Social Cognition
Introduction
Understanding attitudes and social cognition is crucial in social psychology. This guide provides a detailed insight into how attitudes are formed, changed, and how they influence behaviour.
Understanding Attitudes
Definition and Components of Attitudes
Attitudes are a set of views or thoughts regarding a particular topic (attitude object), accompanied by an emotional component and a tendency to act in a particular way.
- Cognitive Component: Thoughts or beliefs about the attitude object.
- Affective Component: Emotional reactions towards the attitude object.
- Behavioural Component: Actions or behaviour towards the attitude object.
Nature of Attitudes
- Valence (Positivity or Negativity): Indicates whether the attitude is positive, negative or neutral towards an object.
- Extremeness: Reflects how intense the attitude is.
- Simplicity/Complexity: Refers to how many sub-attitudes exist within a main attitude.
- Centrality: Importance and influence of an attitude within an individual's attitude system.
Attitude Formation and Change
Processes of Attitude Formation
Attitudes are primarily learned through:
- Association: Linking a subject with positive or negative experiences.
- Rewards and Punishments: Positive reinforcement or penalties shape attitudes.
- Modelling: Observing and imitating others' behaviour.
- Group/Cultural Norms: Adopting attitudes prevalent within one’s social or cultural group.
- Exposure to Information: Media and other informational sources shape opinions and attitudes.
Attitude Change
Attitudes may change due to:
- Balance Theory: Striving for consistency in attitudes.
- Cognitive Dissonance: Changing attitudes to reduce dissonance between conflicting thoughts or beliefs.
- Two-step Concept: Attitude change occurs in two steps through identification and subsequent behaviour modification.
Factors Influencing Attitude Change
- Source Characteristics: Credibility and attractiveness of the information source.
- Message Characteristics: Nature, amount, and appeal of the information presented.
- Target Characteristics: Persuasibility, prejudices, self-esteem, and intelligence of the attitude holder.
Attitude-Behaviour Relationship
Consistency between attitudes and behaviour is expected when:
- The attitude is strong and central.
- The person is conscious of the attitude.
- Minimal external pressure influences behaviour.
- Behaviour is not evaluated by others.
- Behaviour is believed to have positive outcomes.
graph TD
A[Strong Attitude] --> B[Behaviour Consistency]
C[Awareness of Attitude] --> B
D[Minimal External Pressure] --> B
E[Positive Behaviour Outcome] --> B
F[No Evaluation by Others] --> B
Prejudice and Discrimination
Nature and Examples of Prejudice
Prejudices are often negative attitudes towards a group, usually based on stereotypes. Discrimination is the behavioural manifestation of these prejudices.
Strategies for Handling Prejudice
Strategies include:
- Education and Information: Correcting stereotypes.
- Increasing Intergroup Contact: Facilitating cooperative interaction.
- Emphasising Individual Identity: Reducing group-based evaluation.
graph LR
A[Prejudice] -->|Education| B[Correct Stereotypes]
A -->|Contact| C[Remove Mistrust]
A -->|Individual Identity| D[Reduce Group Bias]
Social Cognition
Schemas and Stereotypes
Schemas are mental frameworks that help organise and interpret information. Stereotypes are oversimplified schemas about a group of people.
Attribution in Social Cognition
Attribution is the process of explaining the cause of behaviours. Accurate attribution is crucial for understanding and predicting social behaviour.
Review and Summary
Key Terms
- Attitudes, Attribution, Cognitive Dissonance, Prejudice, Stereotype: among others defined within the context of social psychology.
Summary of Key Concepts
- Attitudes are influenced by cognitive, affective, and behavioural components and can be altered through various processes.
- Social environments and cognitive processes significantly impact the formation and change of attitudes.
- Prejudice and discrimination can be mitigated through informed strategies and education.
Additional Resources
- Review Questions: To test understanding and application of concepts.
- Project Ideas: For practical application and deeper exploration.
- Weblinks and Resources: For further study and exploration of advanced topics.
- Pedagogical Hints for Teachers: To facilitate effective teaching of these concepts.
This comprehensive guide on attitude and social cognition provides essential insights, relevant for Class 12 students and anyone interested in the basics of social psychology.
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