Forest Society and Colonialism - Class 9 Social Science - Chapter 4 - Notes, NCERT Solutions & Extra Questions
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Extra Questions - Forest Society and Colonialism | India and the Contemporary World - I | Social Science | Class 9
Which of the following with reference to Chipko Movement is/are correct?
Chipko, signifying 'embrace or hug', was the strategy of hundreds of villagers – mostly women - in Chamoli district of Uttarakhand.
The original Chipko Aandolan dates back to the 18th century and was started by Rajasthan’s Bishnoi community.
The movement was limited to the state of Uttarkhand.
Select the correct code:
Only 1 and 2
Only 2 and 3
Only 1 and 3
All of the above
The correct option is A: Only 1 and 2
Explanation:
Chipko, signifying 'embrace or hug', was the strategy of hundreds of villagers, mostly women, in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand to save the forest cover on the Garhwal Himalayas.
The original Chipko Aandolan dates back to the 18th century and was initiated by Rajasthan’s Bishnoi community. This incident is remembered for the sacrifice of a group of villagers led by Amrita Devi, who laid down their lives while protecting trees from being felled on the orders of the then King of Jodhpur.
Following this event, the king decreed a ban on cutting trees in all Bishnoi villages.
The movement was not limited to the state of Uttarakhand. Inspired by this movement, later leaders like Sunderlal Bahuguna and Panduranga Hegde led similar movements in Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka, respectively.
Thus, the correct statements are only 1 and 2, not 3, making "Only 1 and 2"
the correct choice.
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Ask Chatterbot AIExtra Questions and Answers - Forest Society and Colonialism | India and the Contemporary World - I | Social Science | Class 9
Digging under the surface of the earth is called?
A) geology
B) archaeology
C) research
D) excavation
D) excavation
Excavation is the correct term used for digging under the surface of the earth, typically in an archaeological context, to find historical artefacts.
___________ means illegally occupying others' land.
A. Encroachment
B. Trespassing
C. Appropriation
D. Embezzlement
The correct answer is A. Encroachment.
Encroachment specifically refers to illegally occupying another's land. If someone is found encroaching on land that does not belong to them, legal actions can be initiated to evict them.
The Chipko Andolan (hug of the trees movement) was the result of a grassroots-level effort to end alienation of people from their forests. The movement originated from an incident in a remote village called Reni in Garhwal. There was a dispute between local people and a logging contractor who had been allowed by the government to fell trees in the forest. On a particular day, the contractor's workers appeared in the forest to cut the trees while the men folks were absent. But the women of the village reached the forest quickly and clasped the tree trunks, thus preventing the workers from felling the trees. Thwarted, the contractor had to withdraw. What would have happened if the Chipko Andolan did not arise?
A. The contractor would have felled the trees, destroying them forever.
B. It would not have forced the government to rethink their priorities in the use of forest produce.
C. The destruction of trees would have also affected the quality of soil and the sources of water.
D. All of these
The correct answer is D. All of these.
If the Chipko Andolan had not taken place, several negative outcomes would have likely occurred:
The contractor would have felled the trees, leading to their permanent destruction.
The continuous destruction of trees would have had adverse effects on soil quality and water sources, exacerbating environmental degradation.
This unopposed logging might have prevented the government from re-evaluating and possibly changing their forestry and environmental policies.
Thus, without the grassroots intervention of the Chipko Andolan, the consequences would have impacted not just the local environment but also broader ecological and governmental policy frameworks.
What is meant by deforestation? What are the causes of deforestation?
Deforestation refers to the large-scale cutting down of trees. This phenomenon leads to numerous environmental issues, impacting both local ecosystems and global climate patterns. It's primarily driven by several causes:
Increasing population: As human populations grow, the demand for land, wood, and resources increases, resulting in the clearing of forests for agricultural, residential, or commercial use.
Agricultural expansion: To meet the growing demand for food, forests are converted into farmland.
Logging operations: Trees are harvested for timber and paper products.
Urbanization: Development of urban areas requires space that often comes from deforested land.
The consequences of deforestation are severe, including:
Land degradation
Soil erosion
Global warming
Increase in greenhouse gases
Each of these impacts further exacerbates environmental degradation and contributes to the urgent global environmental crisis.
In what year did the British establish the Indian Forest Service, and who was hired as an expert to manage the forests?
The British established the Indian Forest Service in 1864. They hired Dietrich Brandis, a German expert, to manage the forests.
What was the Imperial Forest Research Institute set up at Dehradun, and which year was it established?
The Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up at Dehradun in 1906. It was established to promote 'scientific forestry' and train individuals in forest management and conservation practices under the British colonial administration.
Explain the concept of 'scientific forestry'? How did it impact the natural forest ecosystem according to the text?
Scientific forestry refers to a system of forest management introduced in the colonial era, particularly by the British and Dutch in territories like India and Java. This method involved the cutting down of natural forests and their replacement with a single species of tree planted in straight rows, thus converting diverse ecosystems into orderly plantations.
This method greatly impacted the natural forest ecosystem in several deleterious ways:
Loss of Biodiversity: Replacement of diverse natural forests with monoculture plantations led to a significant loss of biodiversity. Natural forests contain a variety of tree species, shrubs, herbs, and support diverse fauna. In contrast, plantations focus on specific tree types beneficial for timber, often non-native, which do not support the native biodiversity.
Soil Degradation: The lack of variety in tree species often affects the soil composition and structure, as different species contribute differently to the soil nutrients and its physical properties. Monoculture can lead to the depletion of certain nutrients.
Disruption of Local Ecosystems: The alteration from mixed forests to single-species plantations disrupts local ecosystems. It affects everything from the microorganisms in the soil to the animals that rely on various parts of the forest for food and shelter.
Impact on Local Communities: The introduction of scientific forestry restricted local communities' access to diverse forest products needed for their livelihoods, such as medicinal plants, fodder, and fruits, affecting their traditional way of life and economic well-being.
Overall, while intended to enhance the forestry efficiency and economic gain from forests, scientific forestry significantly harmed the ecological balance and biodiversity of forest areas.
What changes did the Indian Forest Act of 1878 bring about in the classification of forests?
The Indian Forest Act of 1878 introduced significant changes in the classification of forests. It divided forests into three categories:
Reserved Forests: These were the best forests in terms of available resources. Villagers were prohibited from extracting any resources from these areas, even for their personal use. Activities like grazing, hunting, and logging were highly regulated and required permissions.
Protected Forests: These forests were not as strictly regulated as reserved forests. While the forest department controlled these areas, the local people could have some access to the resources, such as for grazing and foraging, under regulated conditions.
Village Forests: These were the least restricted forests where communities could use the resources for various purposes such as fuel and fodder, based on local needs.
This act fundamentally aimed at securing a stable supply of resources for colonial economic interests like timber but greatly restricted the rights of local communities.
Describe how the Forest Act affected the lives and traditional practices of local villagers living in forest areas.
The Forest Act imposed severe restrictions that significantly altered the lives and traditional practices of local villagers. Villagers were prohibited from cutting trees for personal use, grazing cattle, collecting fruits and roots, or hunting within the forest areas without official permission, turning these everyday activities into illegal acts. These restrictions meant villagers now had to either steal wood from the forests or face punishments from forest guards who would often demand bribes. Women, who primarily collected fuelwood, faced continuous insecurity and harassment. Additionally, the previously common practice of shifting cultivation was banned under the Act, forcing many villagers to abandon their ancestral agricultural practices or face legal consequences, leading to forced displacements and livelihood alterations.
What was shifting cultivation, and why did colonial foresters oppose it? List some of the local terms used for this type of agriculture in India.
Shifting cultivation, also known as swidden agriculture, is an agricultural practice where parts of the forest are cleared by slashing and burning trees, and crops are grown on the cleared land until the soil’s fertility decreases. After a few years of cultivation, the land is left fallow to regenerate its fertility, and the cultivators move on to another plot to repeat the process.
Colonial foresters opposed shifting cultivation because they believed it was harmful to forests. They viewed the land used for shifting cultivation as unable to regenerate into valuable timber forests, which was important for their economic interests, particularly for railway timber supplies. Additionally, there was a fear of uncontrolled fires spreading and burning valuable timber during the slash and burn phases of shifting cultivation.
In India, shifting cultivation has various local names, reflecting its widespread practice across different regions. Some of these names include:
Dhya
Penda
Bewar
Nevad
Jhum
Podu
Khandad
Kumri
These terms represent the diverse cultural and regional adaptations of this farming method throughout India.
Discuss the role of Gunda Dhur in the 1910 rebellion in the kingdom of Bastar. What were the major reasons for this uprising?
Gunda Dhur played a significant role in the 1910 Bastar rebellion, which was triggered by the discontent over colonial forestry policies. As the colonial government decided to reserve two-thirds of the forest and restrict traditional practices like shifting cultivation and hunting, this angered the local communities. Gunda Dhur, from village Nethanar, emerged as an influential figure, mobilizing villagers through symbols like mango boughs and arrows, calling them to stand against the oppressors. The culmination of issues like increased land rents, forced labor, and brutal famines had aggravated the natives, leading to this large-scale rebellion where bazaars were looted and colonial properties attacked, reflecting deep-rooted resistance against British colonial authority.
How did the British colonial administration respond to the rebellion in Bastar? What was the outcome of this conflict?
The British colonial administration responded to the rebellion in Bastar by deploying troops to suppress the uprising. They used force to disperse, flog, and punish those involved in the rebellion. Despite their efforts, the British were unable to capture the rebel leader, Gunda Dhur. Most villages were deserted as people fled into the jungles to escape the colonial retaliation.
The outcome of the conflict saw a temporary suspension of forest reservation work and a reduction in the area planned to be reserved, approximately to half of what was initially intended. This response indicated a partial concession to the demands of the rebels, albeit under severe duress and after significant conflict. However, the underlying policies of forest control for industrial use continued even after Indian independence.
In the context of Java, who were the Kalangs and why were they significant during the Dutch colonial period?
The Kalangs were a community in Java, recognized for their expertise as skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators. Their significance during the Dutch colonial period stems from their valuable skills in harvesting teak, which was vital for building purposes, including the construction of palaces and other significant structures.
When the Mataram kingdom of Java split in 1755, the 6,000 Kalang families were so vital that they were equally divided between the two new kingdoms. This strategic division highlights their importance in maintaining the economic and construction needs of the kingdoms.
As the Dutch began to exert control over Java's forests in the 18th century, they attempted to regulate and employ the Kalangs under colonial forestry policies. The Kalangs, however, resisted these efforts, most notably in 1770 when they attacked a Dutch fort at Joana, showcasing their resistance against colonial exploitation. Although this uprising was suppressed, it marks a significant episode of local resistance against colonial forest management and exploitation.
Explain the impact of both World Wars on forest management in India and Java. How did these global events influence forestry practices?
Both World Wars significantly impacted forest management in India and Java, driven by the urgent need for resources. In India, as demands for war supplies surged, the forest department abandoned sustainable working plans, rampantly cutting trees to meet the British war needs. Similarly, in Java, with the imminent threat of Japanese occupation during World War II, the Dutch enacted a "scorched earth" policy, destroying sawmills and burning teak logs to prevent their use by the enemy. Subsequent Japanese occupation led to reckless exploitation of forests for war industries, compelling villagers to cut trees extensively, which further eroded sustainable forestry management. This period marked a pivotal deviation from regulated to exploitative forest use, driven by wartime exigencies.
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Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people:
Shifting cultivators
Nomadic and pastoralist communities
Firms trading in timber/forest produce
Plantation owners
Kings/British officials engaged in shikar (hunting)
Shifting Cultivators: The implementation of forest laws negatively impacted shifting cultivators. Banning of their traditional practice, due to concerns over timber and tax calculations, led to displacement and occupational shifts, sometimes resulting in rebellions.
Nomadic and Pastoralist Communities: Restrictions on forest access hindered the mobility essential for grazing and traditional routes. This led to a decline in their livelihoods and forced some into 'criminal tribes', pushing them into labor in new sectors.
Firms Trading in Timber/Forest Produce: European trading firms gained exclusive rights, monopolizing the trade in forest products. This restructuring favored large firms over local traders and significantly altered the trade dynamics.
Plantation Owners: They benefited from the colonial focus on cash crops. Large tracts of forest land were cleared and given at low rates to set up plantations, boosting their profits through the cultivation of tea, coffee, and rubber.
Kings/British Officials Engaged in Shikar (hunting): The forest laws facilitated exclusive hunting rights for officials and nobility, turning hunting into a sport and status symbol. The overhunting during this period led to the near extinction of several large animal species.
What are the similarities between colonial management of the forests in Bastar and in Java?
The colonial management of forests in Bastar and Java shared several similarities under the British and Dutch rule, respectively. In both regions, scientific forestry was introduced which prioritized timber extraction over local needs, fundamentally replacing diverse natural forests with uniform plantations. This practice significantly altered traditional lifestyles, limiting access to forest resources for local communities. Both colonial governments enacted strict forest laws which curtailed the freedom of indigenous peoples to cut wood, graze cattle, and practice shifting cultivation, leading to a severe impact on their traditional agricultural practices. Moreover, in both cases, resistance movements arose as local communities, led by figures like Gunda Dhur in Bastar and Surontiko Samin in Java, opposed these oppressive measures.
Between 1880 and 1920 , forest cover in the Indian subcontinent declined by 9.7 million hectares, from 108.6 million hectares to 98.9 million hectares. Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline:
Railways
Shipbuilding
Agricultural expansion
Commercial farming
Tea/Coffee plantations
Adivasis and other peasant users
Between 1880 and 1920, railways significantly contributed to deforestation as they required vast amounts of timber for sleepers and fuel, leading to extensive tree felling. Shipbuilding, especially for the Royal Navy, also drove the demand for durable hardwoods like teak, further reducing forest cover.
Agricultural expansion played a critical role, with increasing population pressure turning forests into farmland to meet food demands, decreasing forest areas. Similarly, commercial farming of cash crops like cotton and jute required clearing forests for plantation areas, contributing to habitat loss.
Tea and coffee plantations meant large tracts of natural forests were cleared and converted into monoculture plantations, reducing biodiversity. Lastly, the traditional practices of Adivasis and other peasant users, like shifting cultivation, also led to forest degradation, although their impact was comparatively smaller than commercial activities.
Why are forests affected by wars?
Forests are affected by wars mainly due to the increased demand for resources that can be derived from them, such as timber for construction, fuelwood for military purposes, and clearings for strategic advantages. During wartime, forest management is often neglected or militarized policies prioritize resource extraction over conservation, leading to significant deforestation. Additional activities like the construction of military bases, trenches, and roads also lead to habitat destruction. Furthermore, the upheaval of war can reduce the ability of local communities and governments to manage forests sustainably, exacerbating the impact on forest ecosystems.
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Studying the intricate relationship between forest societies and colonialism provides insightful perspectives on how colonial rule reshaped economies, societies, and environments. This comprehensive guide will delve into various aspects of this transformation, aiding Class 9 students in understanding the profound impacts of colonialism on forest societies.
Understanding Forest Societies and Colonialism
The Pre-colonial Forest Societies
Before the advent of colonial rule, forest societies thrived with complex systems of stewardship and sustainable use of forest resources. These societies included a variety of communities such as forest dwellers, pastoralists, and shifting cultivators who were adept at managing their environments.
Entry of Colonial Powers
Colonial powers primarily viewed forests as valuable sources of raw material. The British, for example, began extensive logging operations to support their burgeoning shipbuilding and railway industries.
Changes in Forest Societies During Colonial Rule
Impact on Forest Dwellers
Colonial rule severely impacted the traditional practices of forest dwellers. Shifting cultivation, a common practice, faced bans and restrictions as colonial authorities viewed it as harmful to timber production. Hunting practices, integral to the forest-dwelling communities, were curtailed, turning customary rights into illegal activities.
Colonial Policies and Their Effects
Colonial policies, particularly the Indian Forest Act of 1865, revolutionized forest management. The Act established state control over forests, introducing 'scientific forestry'—a method emphasizing monoculture plantations over diverse natural forests. This approach often ignored the multiple needs of local communities who relied on varied forest produce.
Economic Exploitation of Forests
Use of Forest Resources by the British
The British extensively exploited forest resources, primarily for timber needed for shipbuilding and railways. Vast areas of forests were cleared for plantations—tea, coffee, and rubber—to meet the demands of European markets.
Livelihoods and Trades
Colonial policies transformed local trades and livelihoods. The introduction of forest laws restricted traditional trades, while new employment opportunities often involved arduous labour under unfavourable conditions. This period saw a shift from independent livelihoods to dependence on colonial administration and labour contracts.
Rebellions and Resistance
Major Rebellions Against Colonial Policies
Many forest communities resisted colonial impositions through various rebellions. For instance, the Bastar Rebellion of 1910 was a significant uprising against the colonial reservation of forests and restrictions on traditional practices.
Case Studies
The Bastar Rebellion of 1910
Located in the southern part of Chhattisgarh, the Bastar rebellion was ignited by the colonial proposal to reserve two-thirds of the forest and curtail traditional forest uses. The rebellion was marked by widespread participation and highlighted the local communities' resilience against colonial oppression.
Samin’s Challenge in Java
Surontiko Samin from Java challenged the Dutch colonial administration by questioning their authority over forests. Samin's movement, followed by thousands of families, involved non-violent protests and civil disobedience.
Environmental and Social Impacts
Deforestation and Environmental Degradation
Colonialism led to significant deforestation. Between 1700 and 1995, about 13.9 million square kilometers of forest were cleared globally for various industrial uses, pastures, and cultivation. This extensive deforestation had profound environmental impacts, including loss of biodiversity.
Social Impacts on Local Communities
Forest laws introduced by the colonial government displaced many communities and disrupted their traditional livelihoods. The introduction of plantations and cash crops also altered social dynamics, often leading to the exploitation of local labor.
Global Perspective
Forest Management by Other Colonial Powers
Similar to British policies in India, the Dutch in Indonesia implemented strict forest management practices. The blandongdiensten system in Java involved forcing villagers to provide free labour in exchange for partial exemption from land rents.
Lessons Learned
Modern perspectives on colonial forest management emphasize the need for sustainable and inclusive practices that respect the rights and traditions of local communities.
The Legacy of Colonial Forest Management
Post-Colonial Forest Policies
Post-independence, many colonial forest management practices continued, albeit with some reforms. However, conflicts between forest conservation and local livelihoods persist, requiring ongoing adjustments in policy and practice.
Current Conflicts and Resolutions
Efforts to resolve these conflicts include participatory forest management practices, where local communities play a crucial role in conserving forests, ensuring sustainable use, and protecting biodiversity.
Conclusion
Understanding the transformation of forest societies under colonialism reveals the complexities of historical exploitation and resistance. It underscores the significance of inclusive, sustainable forest management practices for preserving natural resources and supporting local communities. This comprehensive exploration provides Class 9 students with essential insights into the profound impacts of colonialism on forest societies.
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