The Harappan Civilisation - Class 12 History - Chapter 1 - Notes, NCERT Solutions & Extra Questions
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Notes - The Harappan Civilisation | Class 12 Themes in Indian History - I | History
The Harappan Civilisation Class 12 Notes: Comprehensive Guide for Students
Introduction
The Harappan Civilisation, also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation, is one of the oldest known human civilisations. Flourishing around 2600 to 1900 BCE, it was remarkable for its advanced urban planning, architecture, and social organisation. This guide provides a detailed overview of the Harappan Civilisation, touching upon its key features, daily life, economy, technology, and much more, specifically tailored for Class 12 students.
Understanding the Timeline and Location
When Did the Harappan Civilisation Flourish?
The Harappan Civilisation emerged around 2600 BCE and continued until approximately 1900 BCE. Periods preceding and succeeding it are referred to as Early Harappan and Late Harappan stages, respectively.
Geographical Extent of the Harappan Civilisation
The civilisation spanned a vast region covering parts of modern-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Its major urban centres included Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Dholavira, among others.
Key Characteristics of the Harappan Civilisation
Urban Planning and Architecture
The Harappan Civilisation is renowned for its sophisticated urban planning, with cities built on a grid-like pattern.
Citadel and Lower Town: Harappan cities are divided into two distinct parts—the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel is elevated and fortified, housing important public buildings. The Lower Town, on the other hand, had residential areas and commercial establishments.
Drainage Systems: An advanced drainage system is one of the most distinctive features, indicating a high level of civic planning. Roads and streets were laid out in straight lines, intersecting at right angles, and were equipped with covered drains made of bricks.
Harappan Seals and Script
Harappan seals, typically made from steatite, often feature animal motifs and undeciphered inscriptions. These seals were used for trade and communication.
Harappan Script:
The script remains undeciphered, consisting of short inscriptions with around 375–400 symbols. It appears to be read from right to left.
Daily Life and Economy
Subsistence Strategies
Agriculture and Irrigation: Harappans practised agriculture with crops like wheat, barley, lentils, and a variety of other grains. Irrigation techniques included using canals and water reservoirs, especially in semi-arid regions.
Domestication of Animals: Cattle, sheep, goats, and buffaloes were domesticated. The Harappans also consumed fish and other animal products.
Flowchart: Harappan Agricultural Practices
graph TD;
A[Crops Cultivated] --> B[Wheat];
A --> C[Barley];
A --> D[Lentils];
A --> E[Chickpeas];
F[Livestock Domesticated] --> G[Cattle];
F --> H[Sheep];
F --> I[Goats];
F --> J[Buffaloes];
B --> K[Irrigation: Canals];
B --> L[Water Reservoirs];
Craft Production and Trade
Materials and Techniques Used: Harappans excelled in bead-making, pottery, metalwork, and seal carving. They used materials like carnelian, jasper, metal, shell, and clay.
Trade Networks: Extensive trade networks facilitated the exchange of goods within the civilisation and with distant lands like Mesopotamia and Oman.
Social and Religious Aspects
Social Structure and Burials
Burial practices show variations in grave construction, suggesting social differences. Both men and women were buried with ornaments and pottery, indicating a belief in the afterlife.
Religious Beliefs and Practices
Ritual Structures: The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro is an example of a possible ritual structure. Seals depicting yogic postures and animal motifs suggest reverence for nature and proto-Shiva worship.
Technological and Cultural Achievements
Craftsmanship in Beads, Pottery, and Metalwork
Harappans were skilled artisans, creating intricate beads, pottery, and metal objects. They used advanced techniques in bead-making, including drilling and polishing.
Technological Advances in Tools and Weights
Harappans used standardised weights for trade and crafted tools from stone and metal.
Decline and Legacy
Theories About the Decline
Several theories explain the decline of the Harappan Civilisation, including climatic changes, deforestation, and river shifts. By 1800 BCE, many urban centres were abandoned, giving way to a more rural lifestyle.
Transition to Late Harappan Culture
Post-1900 BCE, distinctive Harappan traits like script, seals, and craft specialisation disappeared, marking a transition to Late Harappan or successor cultures.
Archaeological Methods and Discoveries
Beginning of Archaeological Work
Initial excavations by archaeologists like Alexander Cunningham and John Marshall unveiled the Harappan sites, leading to the identification of a unique civilisation.
Modern Excavations and Findings
Recent excavations and advanced methods have uncovered more sites and artefacts, deepening our understanding of Harappan life and culture.
Class 12 Curriculum Insights
What Does the Class 12 Curriculum Cover?
The Class 12 curriculum covers various aspects of the Harappan Civilisation, including its historical context, urban planning, social structure, economy, and decline.
Important Points to Remember for Exams
Students should focus on the key features of urban planning, the significance of Harappan seals, the structure of their society, and reasons for the civilisation's decline.
Conclusion
The study of the Harappan Civilisation reveals a highly organised society with impressive technological and cultural achievements. Understanding this ancient civilisation provides valuable insights into early human urbanisation and social organisation.
References
- Suggested readings and references from authoritative sources.
This guide serves as an essential resource for Class 12 students seeking to understand the Harappan Civilisation. It offers a well-rounded overview, including significant historical, archaeological, and cultural insights.
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NCERT Solutions - The Harappan Civilisation | Themes in Indian History - I | History | Class 12
List the items of food available to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would have provided these.
In Harappan cities, the diet consisted of a wide variety of plant and animal products. People consumed grains such as wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, and sesame. Millets were prevalent in Gujarat, and the finds of rice are relatively rare. Regarding animal products, evidence shows the consumption of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig, which were likely domesticated by the Harappans. Additionally, they consumed wild species such as boar, deer, and gharial, although it's uncertain if these were hunted by the Harappans themselves or obtained through exchange with other communities. Fish and fowl were also part of their diet.
The primary groups responsible for providing these foods would have been farmers and pastoralists for plant and domesticated animal produce, while hunters and possibly trading communities contributed wild game and fish. These practices illustrate a diversified and rich food economy within the Harappan civilization.
How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society? What are the differences that they notice?
Archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society primarily through the study of burials and artifacts. Variations in the quality and quantity of grave goods, such as jewelry and pottery, suggest differences in status or wealth. Burials with more elaborate grave goods indicate higher socio-economic status. Additionally, differences in the size and construction of houses also provide clues. Larger houses with better construction in particular city areas like Mohenjodaro’s Citadel suggest higher social standing.
Artefact analysis, distinguishing utilitarian items from luxuries made of rare materials or advanced technology, further helps identify socio-economic stratifications. Luxurious items were typically found in larger, urban centers, suggesting concentration of wealth and higher status individuals in these areas.
Would you agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning? Give reasons for your answer.
Yes, I would agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning. Here are the reasons:
Layout of Drains: Streets and drains were laid out first, with houses built along them, showing a pre-planned layout. This ensured efficient waste water management.
Systematic Construction: Drains were made of bricks set in mortar, covered with loose bricks or limestone, which could be removed for cleaning. This points to well-thought-out construction methods designed for maintenance.
Integration with Houses: Every house was connected to the street drains, showing an integrated approach to plumbing and sanitation.
Public and Private Coordination: Large drainage channels with periodic sumps for cleaning suggest coordination between private houses and public infrastructure.
Uniformity in Planning: The use of standardised bricks and the grid pattern of the towns highlight the uniform planning principles applied across cities.
These points collectively demonstrate that the Harappan civilisation had a sophisticated approach to urban planning, particularly in the context of their drainage systems.
List the materials used to make beads in the Harappan civilisation. Describe the process by which any one kind of bead was made.
Materials Used for Making Beads
The Harappan civilisation used a variety of materials to make beads. These included:
Stones: Carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite
Metals: Copper, bronze, gold
Shell
Faience
Terracotta (burnt clay)
Process of Making Carnelian Beads
The process of making carnelian beads involved several steps:
Obtaining the Raw Material: The raw material, initially yellowish, was collected.
Firing: To achieve the beautiful red color, the yellowish raw material was fired.
Chipping: Nodules of carnelian were chipped into rough shapes.
Fine Flaking: The rough shapes were then finely flaked into the final desired form.
Grinding and Polishing: The beads were further ground and polished to smoothen and perfect their surface.
Drilling: Specialised drills were used to create holes in the beads.
This detailed process highlights the skill and craftsmanship of the Harappan bead-makers.
Look at Fig. 1.30 and describe what you see. How is the body placed? What are the objects placed near it? Are there any artefacts on the body? Do these indicate the sex of the skeleton?
Fig. 1.30
A Harappan burial
In Fig. 1.30, which depicts a Harappan burial:
Body Placement: The body is laid on its back in an extended position, with the head towards the left side of the image and the feet towards the right.
Objects Near the Body: Alongside the body, multiple pottery items can be observed, including various types of vessels and jars. These are placed near the head and upper part of the body.
Artefacts on the Body: It doesn’t seem like there are any visible artefacts on the skeleton itself in this image.
Indication of Sex: The image does not provide clear artefacts or items that indicate the sex of the skeleton.
Without more specific artefacts or detailed analysis, it's challenging to determine the sex of the individual just from the image provided.
Describe some of the distinctive features of Mohenjodaro.
Mohenjodaro, one of the principal urban centers of the Harappan civilization, showcases several distinctive features:
Urban Planning:
The settlement is divided into two sections: the Citadel (the smaller but higher section) and the Lower Town (the larger but lower section).
Both sections are walled and built on mud brick platforms.
Drainage System:
One of the most distinctive features is the carefully planned drainage system.
Roads and streets were laid out in a grid pattern, intersecting at right angles, with drains running alongside the streets.
Houses had drains connected to the street drains, ensuring an efficient waste disposal system.
Standardized Bricks:
The bricks used in construction were of a standardized ratio (length and breadth four times and twice the height, respectively).
Citadel Structures:
The Citadel housed structures for public purposes, such as the warehouse and the Great Bath.
The Great Bath was a large, watertight rectangular tank considered significant for its probable ritual use.
Residential Buildings:
Houses were centered on courtyards, surrounded by rooms, and designed with a concern for privacy.
Many houses had their own wells.
Water Management:
The site included features like sumps for settling solid waste and covered drainage channels for waste water.
Architectural Planning:
The settlement seemed planned and constructed in a coordinated manner, with all construction activity restricted to designated platforms after the platforms were established.
These features highlight advanced urban planning, sophisticated water management, and standardized construction techniques at Mohenjodaro.
List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained.
The raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation included:
Stone like carnelian (red stone), jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite.
Metals such as copper, bronze, and gold.
Shell.
Faience (material made of ground sand or silica mixed with color and a gum and then fired).
Terracotta (burnt clay).
Methods of Procurement:
Local Availability:
Clay: Locally available and used extensively for pottery and terracotta items.
Establishing Settlements:
Shell: Settlements like Nageshwar and Balakot were located near coastal areas where shell was available.
Steatite: Sources in South Rajasthan and North Gujarat.
Carnelian: Procured from areas like Bharuch in Gujarat.
Metal: Rajasthan provided sources for metals, including copper.
Sending Expeditions:
Copper: The Khetri region of Rajasthan was known for its copper reserves.
Gold: Expeditions to southern India for gold.
Long-distance Trade:
Lapis Lazuli: Sourced from Shortughai in Afghanistan.
Copper: Imported from Oman, indicated by the chemical similarities and archaeological finds of Omani copper in Harappan artefacts.
Trade Routes:
Riverine and Coastal Routes: Used for transporting goods and materials along the Indus and its tributaries and along the coast.
These procurement strategies illustrate a combination of local sourcing, specialized settlements, expeditions, and long-distance trade, showing the complexity and sophistication of Harappan craft production.
Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the past.
Archaeologists reconstruct the past primarily through the study of material evidence, such as pottery, tools, ornaments, and household objects. Here are the key methods they utilize:
Analysis of Material Remains: These includes things like stone, metal, and terracotta artifacts, which survive over long periods. Organic materials like cloth, leather, and wood usually decompose, especially in tropical regions.
Classification of Finds: Artefacts are classified based on their material composition (e.g., stone, clay, metal) and function (e.g., tools, ornaments, ritual objects). Determining the function can be informed by the resemblance to modern objects or the context of their discovery (e.g., in a house, grave, or kiln).
Stratigraphy: This involves studying the layers (strata) of soil at a site to establish a chronological sequence of human activity. Generally, the lowest layers are the oldest.
Contextual Analysis: Examining where and how items are found, such as within a house, a drain, or a cemetery, helps to interpret the use and significance of artefacts.
Indirect Evidence: Where direct evidence is lacking, archaeologists use indirect methods, like depictions in sculptures or analogies with present-day objects, to infer the past practices.
Cross-disciplinary Techniques: Using specialists such as archaeo-botanists (for plant remains) and archaeo-zoologists (for animal bones) helps to reconstruct subsistence strategies like diet.
Scientific Techniques: Modern techniques include chemical analyses to trace the origin of materials, study wear patterns on tools, or carbon dating for establishing the age of organic remains.
Experimental Archaeology: Experts replicate ancient techniques to understand how objects were crafted and used. For instance, re-creating bead-making processes to identify ancient methods.
Comparison with Contemporary Civilizations: Comparing artefacts from different regions, such as Mesopotamia, helps to identify trade connections and shared cultural practices.
Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society.
The functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society can be inferred from the archaeological evidence. Although there is no definitive proof regarding the existence of kings or a ruling class, several functions can be hypothesized based on the organisation and artifacts found:
Urban Planning and Construction: The extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts, planned urban layouts, standardised brick sizes, and drainage systems suggest that complex decisions were made and implemented at a community or societal level. This implies the presence of a central authority.
Trade and Commerce Regulation: The existence of a precise system of weights and standardised seals for long-distance communication indicates a structured commercial and trade system that may have been overseen by rulers or a central governing body.
Craft Production Supervision: The regulation and oversight of specialised craft production centers like bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, and seal-making could have been managed by rulers to ensure consistency and quality.
Resource Procurement and Allocation: Procuring materials from distant lands as far as Afghanistan for raw materials like carnelian, lapis lazuli, and copper indicates a well-organised system likely managed by a centralised authority to maintain resource flow.
Religious or Ritualistic Oversight: Structures like the Great Bath suggest the possibility of organised public rituals or religious ceremonies, which may have been supervised by rulers or religious leaders integrated into the governance structure.
Labor Mobilisation: The construction of massive structures, platforms, and public works imply the mobilisation of large labor forces, a task which typically falls under the authority of rulers.
These indicators suggest that rulers in Harappan society, if they existed, were involved in administrative, commercial, and possibly religious functions, reflecting a sophisticated and organised system of governance.
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Ask Chatterbot AIExtra Questions - The Harappan Civilisation | Themes in Indian History - I | History | Class 12
Radha loves history. She wants to visit some Indus Valley sites today. Which of the following do you think she can visit without a passport?
A) Harappa
B) Chanhudaro
C) Kali Bangan
D) Lothal
Radha can visit the following Indus Valley sites without a passport:
C) Kali Bangan
D) Lothal
Lothal is located in present-day Gujarat, and Kali Bangan is found in Northern Rajasthan. These are both sites from the Indus Valley Civilization that are located within India. In contrast, Harappa and Chanhudaro are situated in modern-day Pakistan.
Most of the Harappan seals were made of
A. gold
B. bronze
C. shell
D. stones
The correct answer is D. stones.
The Harappans crafted seals primarily from stone. These seals were typically rectangular in shape and often featured carvings of animal figures on them.
The roads of the Harappan cities were paved with fire-burnt bricks of $\qquad$ size.
A) uneven
B) unequal
C) standard
D) haphazard
The correct answer is C) standard.
The Harappan civilization is renowned for its well-planned urban centers, which included systematically arranged houses and roads. These roads were constructed using fire-burnt bricks that were uniform in size, known as standard size. Additionally, the main streets typically intersected at right angles, creating a grid that divided the city into square or rectangular blocks.
This was a musical instrument of the Harappans:
A Flute
B Lyre
C Tambourine
D Bell
The correct answer is B Lyre. The Lyre was a musical instrument known among the Harappans.
The Rosetta Stone is a stone slab that became key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs, thereby opening a window into ancient Egyptian history. It is hoped that a similar discovery will eventually be made in the context of one other ancient script. Which of the following is being referred to?
A) The Brahmi script
B) The Sumerian script
C) The Kadamba script
D) The Harappan script
The correct answer is D) The Harappan script.
The Rosetta Stone was crucial for deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs, unlocking insights into ancient Egyptian civilization. Similarly, a breakthrough in deciphering the Harappan script would significantly advance our understanding of the Harappan civilization, about which many questions remain unresolved. Hence, like the Rosetta Stone, a key to the Harappan script could provide valuable historical revelations.
Who excavated the Harappan civilization?
Ram Sharan Sharma
Rakaldas Bannerji
Irfan Habib
None of the above
The correct option is B) Rakaldas Bannerji.
Dayaram Sahni and Rakaldas Bannerji excavated the Harappan sites located in Pakistan. This significant discovery extended our understanding of Indian history by at least 2000 years before the Vedic age.
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