Early Societies (C. 600 BCE-600 CE) Kinship, Class and Caste - Class 12 History - Chapter 3 - Notes, NCERT Solutions & Extra Questions
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Notes - Early Societies (C. 600 BCE-600 CE) Kinship, Class and Caste | Class 12 Themes in Indian History - I | History
Early Societies (C. 600 BCE-600 CE): Kinship, Class, and Caste - Comprehensive Class 12 Notes
The Historical Context and Societal Changes
Economic and Political Shifts
Between c. 600 BCE and 600 CE, significant changes occurred in the economic and political spheres. The extension of agriculture into forested areas transformed the lives of forest dwellers, while craft specialists emerged as distinct social groups, sharpening social differences due to the unequal distribution of wealth.
Role of Texts and Inscriptions
Historians use a variety of textual traditions to understand these processes. Texts from this period lay down social norms and describe a range of social situations and practices. They offer valuable insights into the attitudes and actions that shaped early social histories.
The Mahabharata: A Window into Early Indian Society
The Mahabharata, a colossal epic running into over 100,000 verses, is one of the richest texts of the subcontinent. Composed over about 1,000 years from c. 500 BCE onwards, it depicts a wide range of social categories and situations and lays down norms of behaviour for various social groups.
The Critical Edition Project
One of the most ambitious scholarly projects began in 1919, under V.S. Sukthankar, to prepare a critical edition of the Mahabharata. This involved collecting and comparing Sanskrit manuscripts from different regions, resulting in a comprehensive edition over 13,000 pages long.
Kinship and Family Structures
Variations in Family Life
Family structures varied significantly in early societies. Families shared food, resources, and rituals, and were parts of larger networks known as kinfolk. The notions of familial ties, often regarded as "natural," were interpreted differently across societies.
Concepts of Patriliny and Matriliny
The Mahabharata reinforces ideas of patriliny, where descent is traced through the male line. This was prevalent among ruling dynasties and elite societies. However, matriliny, where descent is traced through the female line, was also practiced in some regions.
Marriage Norms and Practices
Exogamy vs Endogamy
Exogamy, or marrying outside one's kin group, was a common practice among elite families, whereas endogamy, or marrying within the kin group, was prevalent in several communities in South India.
Forms of Marriage in Manusmriti
The Manusmriti outlined eight forms of marriage, with only the first four considered "good" by Brahmanical standards. The first form involved the father giving his daughter to a man learned in the Veda, while the fourth was more flexible, focusing on ritualistic approval.
Gotra Rules and Marriages
Brahmanical practices classified individuals into various gotras, with strict rules against marrying within the same gotra. This system helped maintain social order and regulated family ties.
Social Stratification: Class and Caste
Understanding Varna and Jati
Varna and jati were fundamental categories used to classify society. Varna was a broader classification into four categories, while jati was a more specific classification based on occupation and community.
graph LR
A[Four Varnas] --> B[Brahmanas]
A --> C[Kshatriyas]
A --> D[Vaishyas]
A --> E[Shudras]
B --> F[Priests]
C --> G[Warriors]
D --> H[Traders]
E --> I[Servants]
Roles and Occupations by Varnas
According to Dharmashastras, Brahmanas were scholars and priests, Kshatriyas were warriors and rulers, Vaishyas were traders and agriculturists, and Shudras were servants. These roles were strictly enforced to maintain social hierarchy.
Challenges to the Caste System
Although only Kshatriyas were ideally fit to rule, several non-Kshatriya kings such as the Mauryas and Shakas challenged these notions. Additionally, many ruling dynasties, like the Satavahanas, practiced endogamy and other non-Brahmanical norms.
Wealth, Resources, and Social Status
Access to Property
Men generally controlled land and resources, but women had stridhana, or their own wealth acquired through gifts. However, societal norms limited women's economic power compared to men.
Buddhist Critiques of Varna
Buddhist texts critiqued the rigid varna system and offered alternative perspectives on social inequalities, emphasising individual merit over hereditary status.
Historical Texts and Social Norms
Handling and Interpreting Texts
Historians examine various aspects of texts such as language, content, authorship, and the intended audience. This analytical approach helps reveal the historical significance of complex texts like the Mahabharata.
Generosity and Wealth Sharing in Tamilakam
In early Tamil society, the practice of generosity, especially among chieftains, was highly valued. Wealth was expected to be shared among community members, indicating social responsibilities beyond personal gain.
Conclusion
Early societies from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE were characterized by complex kinship structures, rigid class and caste systems, and evolving social norms. Understanding these elements is crucial for gaining insights into the significant historical and cultural transformations that shaped early Indian society.
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NCERT Solutions - Early Societies (C. 600 BCE-600 CE) Kinship, Class and Caste | Themes in Indian History - I | History | Class 12
Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.
Patriliny, or the tracing of descent through the male line, may have been particularly important among elite families for several reasons:
Inheritance of Resources: Patriliny ensured that wealth and power, such as land, thrones, and other resources, were passed down from father to son. This maintained the continuity of control and influence within the same family.
Stability and Continuity: By following patriliny, elite families could ensure continuity and stability in leadership and governance. This was crucial for maintaining the authority and legitimacy of ruling dynasties.
Political Alliances: Marriage alliances were often strategically used to strengthen political ties and enhance power. A patrilineal system helped to clearly define and trace these alliances through male descendants.
Social Status: In many societies, including those described in texts like the Mahabharata, men typically held higher status and greater authority. Patriliny aligned with these social norms and reinforced the dominant male roles in leadership and inheritance.
Religious and Cultural Norms: Patrilineal descent was often supported by religious and cultural practices. Texts and rituals that emphasized the importance of producing male heirs fortified these preferences.
Example from the Mahabharata
The Mahabharata's narrative itself reinforces the value of patriliny. The central conflict over succession between the Kauravas and Pandavas highlights the importance of male heirs in the succession of the throne.
By embedding these principles within the epic's story, the text both reflects and reinforces the societal values surrounding patriliny among the elite.
Discuss whether kings in early states were invariably Kshatriyas
Kings in early states were not invariably Kshatriyas. Here are a few points that illustrate the diversity of their backgrounds:
Social Backgrounds: Several important ruling lineages had different origins. For instance, the Mauryas' social background is debated, with Buddhist texts suggesting they were Kshatriyas, while Brahmanical texts describe them as being of "low" origin.
Brahmana Kings: Dynasties like the Shungas and Kanvas were Brahmanas, indicating that political power was accessible to Brahmanas as well.
Foreign Rulers: Rulers like the Shakas, who came from Central Asia, were regarded as mlechchhas (barbarians or outsiders) by Brahmanas but still held power. For example, Rudradaman, a prominent Shaka ruler, was well-versed in Sanskritic traditions.
Satavahana Claims: The Satavahana dynasty, particularly rulers like Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani, claimed to be both unique Brahmanas and destroyers of Kshatriya pride, showing a mix of Brahmanical and Kshatriya affiliations.
These examples demonstrate that while the Brahmanical texts prescribed that only Kshatriyas could be kings, historical realities were much more complex, with many rulers coming from diverse social and even foreign backgrounds.
Compare and contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba and Matanga.
Drona
Story Summary:
Drona, a Brahmana, refuses to teach archery to Ekalavya, a nishada (hunting community).
Ekalavya, determined, learns archery on his own and surpasses Drona's students in skill.
Drona demands Ekalavya's right thumb as his fee to ensure his own pupil, Arjuna, remains unrivaled.
Dharma or Norms:
Brahmanical Authority: Upholds the caste-based restriction on education and skill, especially in martial arts.
Obedience and Sacrifice: Ekalavya's unhesitating obedience in offering his thumb exemplifies student obedience to the teacher.
Superiority of Kshatriya: Maintains the superiority of Arjuna, a Kshatriya, in the field of archery.
Hidimba
Story Summary:
Hidimba, a rakshasa, falls in love with Bhima and proposes marriage.
Despite being aligned with a different social group (rakshasas), her love is accepted and they have a son, Ghatotkacha.
Bhima and Hidimba live separately during the night, maintaining human-raider boundaries.
Dharma or Norms:
Inter-Species Marriage: Shows flexibility and acceptance of love and marriage beyond human norms.
Heroism and Prowess: Demonstrates Bhima's strength and Hidimba’s allegiance shift due to love.
Conditional Coexistence: Bhima lives by the norm of returning to his brothers, showing respect to family bonds alongside new relationships.
Matanga
Story Summary:
Matanga, born as a chandala, is insulted by Dittha Mangalika.
He protests by lying at her father's doorstep, and she is eventually given to him.
Matanga gains spiritual powers, but his son Mandavya looks down on him due to his chandala origin.
Dharma or Norms:
Resistance to Social Hierarchy: Matanga protests against his degraded social status and achieves spiritual success.
Spiritual Elevation: Shows that spiritual attainment can transcend social status and birth.
Hypocrisy and Ignorance: His son Mandavya, despite benefiting from Matanga's spiritual credit, upholds caste prejudices against his own father.
Comparison
Brahmanical Norms: While Drona's story strictly adheres to caste hierarchy and Brahmanical authority, Matanga’s narrative challenges and subverts these norms.
Acceptance of Outsiders: Hidimba's story shows acceptance and integration of non-human entities into human social structure, whereas Drona's story excludes lower castes from certain privileges.
Obedience and Duty: All three stories emphasize different aspects of obedience and duty—Ekalavya to his guru, Bhima maintaining his family loyalty, and Matanga's spiritual adherence despite societal rejection.
Contrast
Ekalavya and Matanga: Ekalavya’s compliance contrasts with Matanga’s resistance against hierarchical impositions.
Inter-Social Relationships: The Hidimba story provides a more inclusive narrative of love and marriage extending beyond human norms, while Drona’s story reinforces social separation.
Outcome and Resolution: Ekalavya's sacrifice preserves the status quo, while Matanga's spiritual uprising seeks to challenge and alter established norms.
Overall, while the stories of Drona, Hidimba, and Matanga converge on themes of duty and social norms, they diverge significantly in their portrayal of obedience, hierarchy, and inclusivity.
In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha sukta?
The Buddhist theory of a social contract suggests that the institution of kingship was based on human choice and that taxes were a form of payment for services rendered by the king. This view implies a recognition of human agency in creating and institutionalizing economic and social relations, and also suggests that these systems could be changed by humans in the future.
In contrast, the Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha sukta posits that the social order was of divine origin. The four social categories or varnas are said to have emanated from the body of Purusha, the primeval being, with Brahmanas emerging from his mouth, Kshatriyas from his arms, Vaishyas from his thighs, and Shudras from his feet. This hierarchical order was presented as natural, divine, and unalterable.
In summary:
The Buddhist theory emphasizes human agency and the potential for change.
The Brahmanical view asserts a divine and unchangeable order.
This distinction highlights the Buddhist critique of the rigidity and hierarchical nature of the Brahmanical varna system.
The following is an excerpt from the Mahabharata, in which Yudhisthira, the eldest Pandava, speaks to Sanjaya, a messenger:
Sanjaya, convey my respectful greetings to all the Brahmanas and the chief priest of the house of Dhritarashtra. I bow respectfully to teacher Drona … I hold the feet of our preceptor Kripa … (and) the chief of the Kurus, the great Bhishma. I bow respectfully to the old king (Dhritarashtra). I greet and ask after the health of his son Duryodhana and his younger brother ... Also greet all the young Kuru warriors who are our brothers, sons and grandsons … Greet above all him, who is to us like father and mother, the wise Vidura (born of a slave woman) ... I bow to the elderly ladies who are known as our mothers. To those who are our wives you say this, “I hope they are well-protected”… Our daughters-inlaw born of good families and mothers of children greet on my behalf. Embrace for me those who are our daughters … The beautiful, fragrant, well-dressed courtesans of ours you should also greet. Greet the slave women and their children, greet the aged, the maimed (and) the helpless …
Try and identify the criteria used to make this list – in terms of age, gender, kinship ties. Are there any other criteria? For each category, explain why they are placed in a particular position in the list.
The excerpt from the Mahabharata provides a meticulously hierarchical greeting structure based on several criteria: age, gender, kinship ties, and social status. Below is an analysis of each category and their placements in the list:
Age and Expertise:
Brahmanas and the chief priest: Respect to religious authority and elders.
Teacher Drona: Acknowledgment to teacher/mentor.
Kripa (preceptor) and Bhishma (chief of the Kurus): Guru and senior family member.
Dhritarashtra (the old king): Elderly ruler and senior to Pandavas.
Kinship Ties and Leadership:
Dhritarashtra's son Duryodhana and his younger brother: Acknowledgment to the cousins and their children.
Young Kuru warriors (brothers, sons, grandsons): Extended family of Pandavas.
Special Respect and Household Authority:
Vidura: Wise mentor and household authority despite being born of a slave woman.
Elderly ladies (mothers): Due respect to the elderly women.
Wives and Household Care:
Wives: Concern for their well-being.
Daughters-in-law and mothers of children: Respect and acknowledgment of their role in continuing the lineage.
Daughters: Emotional connection and respect.
Social Standing within Household:
Courtesans: Acknowledge their presence and contributions to social and cultural life.
Slave women and their children: Respect and recognition of the lower social classes.
Aged, maimed, and helpless: Humanitarian concern and respect.
Additional Criteria:
Social Role and Contribution:
Hierarchy reflects both the traditional Varna system and the roles and responsibilities within the household.
Functional relevance (e.g., courtesans for their cultural role, even though placed below family).
Summary
The list is organized based on age and rank (elders and mentors first), kinship ties (direct blood relations and then extended family), and social status (from high priests and warriors to courtesans and slaves). This hierarchy illustrates the societal structures and values in Mahabharata where respect is shown beginning with the most revered and influential members down to those of lesser social standing, yet all groups get acknowledged to ensure a comprehensive societal inclusion.
This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Winternitz, wrote about the Mahabharata: “just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire literature … and contains so much and so many kinds of things, … (it) gives(s) us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss.
Maurice Winternitz's observation emphasizes the comprehensive nature of the Mahabharata, highlighting that the epic is not merely a single narrative but a vast collection of literature encompassing diverse themes and genres. Here are key points supporting this view:
Diverse Content:
The Mahabharata includes stories, poems, and didactic sections that cover myths, philosophies, moral conduct, and social norms.
It provides insights into the cultural, social, and political life of ancient India.
Historical and Social Insight:
The epic's detailed portrayal of social categories and kinship structures offers a deep understanding of ancient Indian society.
Descriptions of customs, practices, and conflicts provide a glimpse into the daily life and governance in that era.
Philosophical Depth:
Philosophical discourses, especially in the Bhagavad Gita, reflect profound spiritual and ethical considerations.
It explores complex human emotions and dilemmas, illustrating the moral and existential struggles faced by individuals.
Inclusivity of Various Narratives:
The Mahabharata integrates stories from multiple sources and regions, demonstrating the diverse cultural influences and rich oral traditions of India.
It includes alternative practices and beliefs, indicating a dialogue between dominant and local traditions.
Transformation Over Time:
The text evolved over centuries, incorporating new ideas and narratives, which shows its dynamic nature and relevance through different historical contexts.
By encapsulating mythology, history, philosophy, and social commentary, the Mahabharata indeed provides an unparalleled window into the soul of the Indian folk, reflecting their values, beliefs, and traditions through the ages.
Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author.
The Mahabharata, given its complexity and length, could not have been the work of a single author. Here are several reasons for this conclusion:
Long Composition Period: The text was composed over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE onwards). This extended timeline indicates contributions from multiple authors across generations.
Diverse Content: The Mahabharata contains a mix of narrative sections with stories and didactic sections that lay down social norms. Such a variety of content likely required inputs from different authors specialized in various domains.
Different Phases and Additions: The text went through several phases of additions, such as the period between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE when large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added.
Oral and Written Transmission: Initially, the original story was composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas and circulated orally. It was later taken over by Brahmanas who began to write it down. This change in the medium of transmission also implies involvement from different sets of contributors.
Regional Variations: The regional variations documented in the critical edition indicate that the Mahabharata evolved through dialogues between dominant traditions and resilient local ideas, further asserting that multiple authors contributed to the text.
Evolution of Language: The simpler Sanskrit used in the Mahabharata compared to earlier Vedic texts suggests that the text was revised and adapted over time by different authors to the linguistic standards of their respective eras.
Thus, it is most plausible that the Mahabharata was a collaborative effort by numerous authors rather than the creation of a single individual.
How important were gender differences in early societies? Give reasons for your answer.
Gender differences were quite important in early societies for several reasons, as highlighted in the chapter:
Property and Wealth: Access to economic resources was heavily gendered. Men could acquire wealth through various means such as inheritance, conquest, and work, while women were mainly restricted to marriage-related gifts (
stridhana
). Men generally controlled land, cattle, and money, reinforcing economic power disparities.Marriage Practices: Marriages were regulated carefully to ensure social status and kinship continuity. Practices like exogamy (marrying outside the kin group) and the ideal of patriliny (tracing descent through males) underscored the importance of gender in social structures.
Patriarchal Norms and Texts: Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras prescribed specific roles for men and women, reflecting and reinforcing a patriarchal societal order. For example, texts outlined that women had no claims to household resources and were primarily seen as transmitters of family lineage through marriage.
Educational and Ritual Roles: Roles in education and rituals were also gendered. Brahmanas held exclusive rights to perform certain rituals and teach the Vedas, reinforcing male dominance in religious and educational spheres.
Historical Accounts: Literary sources like the Mahabharata often reinforced gender roles through their narratives, prescribing certain behaviors and roles for men and women, thereby shaping societal attitudes and practices.
Overall, gender differences shaped social, economic, and cultural dimensions in early societies, reflecting and reinforcing existing power structures and norms.
Discuss the evidence that suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed.
The evidence indicating that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed can be found in multiple aspects within the text:
Names of Satavahana Kings:
Satavahana rulers were identified using metronymics, derived from their mother's name, which contradicts the Brahmanical norm that women should adopt the gotra of their husbands after marriage.
This indicates that women retained the names derived from their father's gotra instead of their husband's, highlighting resistance to Brahmanical norms.
Marriage Practices:
Instances of endogamy (marriage within the kin group) among the Satavahanas also point towards deviations from the prescribed exogamy by the Brahmanical texts, especially since some Satavahana women belonged to the same gotra.
Polygamy and Polyandry:
Some Satavahana rulers were polygynous. Such practices did not strictly adhere to Brahmanical norms, which had specific recommendations and classifications for marriage types.
In the Mahabharata, the polyandrous marriage of Draupadi with the Pandavas is a clear indication that alternative marital practices were present. The text attempts to provide multiple justifications for this unusual union, suggesting that polyandry was not in accordance with Brahmanical ideals.
Eight Forms of Marriage in Manusmriti:
The Manusmriti lists eight forms of marriage, acknowledging the existence of marriage practices that did not comply with Brahmanical injunctions. The recognition of different forms implies an awareness of varied social customs and practices beyond the idealized norms.
These examples collectively suggest that normative Sanskrit texts, authored by Brahmanas, often did not reflect the actual social practices prevalent across different regions and communities.
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Ask Chatterbot AIExtra Questions - Early Societies (C. 600 BCE-600 CE) Kinship, Class and Caste | Themes in Indian History - I | History | Class 12
Directions: The question below consists of a group of sentences followed by a suggested sequential arrangement. Select the best sequence.
(A) Who can trace to its first beginnings the love of Damon for Pythias, of David for Jonathan, of Swan for Edgar?
(B) Similarly with men.
(C) There is about great friendships between man and man a certain inevitability that can only be compared with the age-old association of ham and eggs.
(D) One simply feels that it is one of the things that must be so.
(E) No one can say what was the mutual magnetism that brought about the deathless partnership of these wholesome and palatable foodstuffs.
Options:
A) ACEBD
B) BCEDA
C) ACEBD
D) CEABD
The correct sequence is Option B: BCEDA.
Here's the explanation:
(B) establishes the comparison to be made between the relationships of men and familiar combinations.
(C) further deepens this comparison by equating legendary friendships with the iconic pairing of ham and eggs.
(E) delves deeper into the association of ham and eggs, questioning the origin of such a classic combination.
(D) suggests a natural acceptance or inevitability of these great relationships.
(A) rounds off the sequence by drawing parallels to historic friendships, answering the initiation of the series.
This sequence forms a coherent narrative exploring the concept of inevitable and deep-seated associations, both in friendships and familiar food pairings.
When did the Ice Age occur?
A) Start of Paleolithic Era.
B) End of Paleolithic Era and start of Mesolithic Era.
C) End of Mesolithic Era and start of Neolithic Era.
D) End of Neolithic Era.
The correct answer is A) Start of Paleolithic Era.
The Ice Age, scientifically known as the Pleistocene Epoch, began during the Paleolithic Era and concluded at the beginning of the Mesolithic Era. This epoch was characterized by extensive ice sheets and glaciers, accompanying a significant drop in the Earth's temperatures.
Assertion [A]: The Babylonians returned to ruling Mesopotamia after the fall of the Assyrians.
Reason [R]: The Chaldeans, a Semitic tribe, came to power.
A. [A] and [R] are true and [R] is the correct justification for [A].
B. [A] and [R] are true but [R] is not the correct justification for [A].
C. [A] and [R] are false.
D. [A] is true but [R] is false.
The correct answer is A: [A] and [R] are true and [R] is the correct justification for [A].
Explanation: After the decline of the Assyrian Empire, Mesopotamia underwent several changes in control with powers such as the Hittites and Kassites taking over at different times. The key event relevant to this question was when the Chaldeans, a Semitic tribe closely related to the Babylonians, rose to power. This resurgence led by the Chaldeans effectively marked the return of Babylonian rule over Mesopotamia, thereby making both assertion [A] and reason [R] accurate, and [R] serves as a valid explanation for [A].
Which among the following defines the 'Old Regime'?
A. Administration of France before 1789
B. Society and institutions of France before 1789
C. Medieval history of France
D. Bureaucratic regime of France before 1789
The correct answer is B. Society and institutions of France before 1789.
The Old Regime, also known as The Ancient Regime, specifically refers to the social and institutional structures of France prior to the year 1789.
How can we define the prehistoric period?
A. Period for which there are no written records.
B. Period for which written records are available.
C. Period during which a culture or civilization had some resemblance of written records.
D. None of the above.
The correct answer is A. Period for which there are no written records.
Prehistoric period is defined as the time before written records were established. This period is characterized by the absence of written documentation about past events, cultures, and civilizations, making it distinct from later historical times when such records began to exist.
The detailed structure of the membrane was studied after the advent of the electron microscope during:
A) 1990s
B) 1950s
C) 1930s
D) 1970s
The correct answer is B) 1950s.
In the late 1950s, the application of electron microscopy significantly advanced the understanding of cellular structures, including membranes. It was then discovered that membranes are composed of both proteins and lipids and feature a bilayer structure.
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